A. 如何进行中学英语写作教学
目前初中英语教学的书面表达相对滞后,学生的写作水平提高甚微,形成了“听到写作学生心烦,见到习作教师不愿”的现象,究其原因是多方面的。学生方面:(1)汉语影响、生词造句;(2)词汇贫乏、搭配不当;(3)句型误用、语法不通;(4)信息不全、条理紊乱。教师方面在教学中缺乏科学和系统的写作教学方法,表现为:(1)散——缺乏条理性、分散;(2)乱——各层次写作杂乱相间、影响写作能力的提高。
如何提高写作教学效果,可以尝试 “词、句、篇”三步曲的写作教学:
1.巧记单词
按照语言学习规律,英语写作教学的次序应是:词—句—篇。整个训练遵循“词不离句,句不离篇”的原则,由易到难,由简到繁,循序渐进,不断提高。这三个阶段彼此衔接,教会学生在大量的语言实践中学会运用词句,从而达到在书面表达教学中“教、学、用”三者的统一。
书面表达需要一定的词汇量,学生书面表达时容易忘记单词或把汉英词汇等同起来。因此,要求学生坚持每天听写、默写、循环记忆单词,掌握巩固词汇。
2.用词造句、连词成句
写作应从词句练起,记忆所学的词和词组的最好方法是在使用中记忆。通过口、笔头造句练习,模仿课本例句或做替换练习是巩固记忆的好方法。教师应重视教材中的单句练习,引导学生从对单个句型的掌握,逐渐过渡到多种句型的混用,直到学生能连贯自如地表达思想。
3.连句成意、线面融合
此项训练的主要目的是培养学生把语法项目、教材内容和文章体裁有机结合起来的能力。
第一步,仿写
为了便于优生书面写作潜能的发挥,教师可以要求他们只模仿课本、练习册中的题型,而不局限于模仿课本或练习册中的词汇。
第二步,引导学生写
引导学生书面表达有许多形式,教师要从学生“学”的角度来设计教学活动,使学生的学习活动具有明确目标,并构成一个有梯度的连续活动。
第三步,自由发挥
教师要改进教学方法,设计开放性的写作活动,既提高了学生读和写的能力,又提高了其识别、判断和改错的能力,更能发挥学生的内在潜能和丰富的想象力,还增加了学生的成功感。
例如,让学生写一封应聘的书信。可以在一块小黑板上出示作文要求,让学生展开思路,师生共同选出几个最佳的起始句,然后再布置学生课后对这道书面表达题进行布局、谋篇、调整,添枝加叶,最终写出个性化的文章。
第四步,集体订正
在写作训练中,教师应按照循序渐进的原则,注意学生之间的层次差异。教师的写作教学应该顾及到各层次的学生,佳作点评和错例纠正都是不可缺少的环节。教师点评恰当,可以使学生意识到在学习书面表达过程中的成功之处,并得到激励,从而形成继续进步的动力,也可以让学生自省和反思自己的不足,调整学习策略和心态。
总之,教师应根据新课标的要求,适应现代现实生活的实际需要,对学生进行写作教学引导,在教学过程中应从实际情况出发,对学生进行低起点、小步子、容量适中、快速反馈训练,充分体现学生的主体地位,帮助学生获得成功,培养学生的优良学习品质。
B. 如何看待英语教师的英语写作教学
当今的英语教学特别强调对学生的能力培养,即用英语进行听,说,读,写的能力。在教学实践中,要有效提高学生的写作能力并非易事,只有把写作教学与英语基础知识教学,语言基本能力训练及相关练习评价结合起来,才能逐步培养学生的英语思维习惯及语言感知能力,进而为提高学生的写作能力奠定基础。
由于英汉两种语言在语法结构,表达方式,思维习惯存在的差异直接影响了学生的写作能力,因而教学中要务必强化学生的听,说,读等方面的能力,并在训练中让学生掌握最基本的词法,句法及语法,进而才能促使学生准确的表达思想,完成写作,并达到新课标对写作教学的要求。
一:要重视教材中的词汇教学。
通过词缀,词性转化等构词知识,扩充学生的词汇量及记忆能力的提高,同时鼓励学生进行口笔头造句,先易后难,正确运用句型,逐步培养学生在词汇学习中正确运用句子表达含义的能力。
二:强化阅读及背诵,并在模仿练习中加强写作能力。
阅读是语言学习的广泛模式,而范文背诵则强化拓展了这一模式。通过大量有效的阅读及背诵,增强了学生的英语语感,学生认读了大量的英语词汇及句型,同时也为学生提供了很好的写作框架,并为学生的遣词造句,模仿写作提供了坚实的基础。
三:日常教学中要重视学生的动词及短语学习,强化学生的动词决定句型的意识,并在口笔头训练中拓展时态,语态和语气的学习。同时要引导学生就课文中出现的重点词汇,经典例句等进行归纳总结,模仿练习,提高学生的语言变通能力,并在变通中增强英语写作能力。
四:落实写作训练。
教师教学中要将听,说,读,写贯穿于教学的始终。听,说,读为学生的写作奠定了广泛的基础,而写作则是对前者的综合反馈。首先是机械的写作,如默写和听写,再者就是开展创造性的写作。在听,说,读等教学环节中均可突出写作的目标和要求,如句型转换,句子改写,缩写及扩写均是提高学生写作能力的重要手段。
五:评价可以激发学生写作的积极性,并在写作教学中发挥着重要作用。
1. 教师要认真批阅学生的写作练习,并给予正确的评价,也可让学生本人在课堂上读给其他学生听,并让其他学生从中得到启迪。
2. 让学生互批作文,或者进行小组讨论,让学生发现或纠正写作过程中存在的问题,并在相互批阅中提高纠错及写作能力。
3. 加强学生对英语范文的背诵,并在此基础上进行大量的仿写训练。
总之,学生写作能力的提高要得益于英语的听,说,读的有效学习,同时要从学生的实际出发,经过长期反复和多种形式的练习,学生的写作能力才能进一步得到提高。
C. 英语写作教学中存在的问题
个人认为有两个原因:
第一,词汇量非常有限;
第二,没有形成良好的
英语思维
。
D. 如何进行英语写作教学
一、确定恰当.实际的教学目标教学目标是课堂的“指挥棒”,是所有教学行为的“指路明灯”。因此教学目标的设置必须:
(一)符合课程标准和学生实际的程度通常在一堂英语课中,知识和技能方面的教学目标教师都会努力去落实,但后两个目标在教学中容易忽视。而在有些英语课堂教学中,教师的目光有盹总是停留在某一知识点的教学上,反反复复围着目标知识,只求学生能将知识点烂熟于心;而有些教师则片面的追求课堂上的热热闹闹的场面,而忽视了本堂课所要达到的知识与能力目标。笔者曾随堂听过这样一节课:这是一节一年级英语课,本课要教学生们用英语打招呼。上课铃响了,“Hello!”老师有激情地向学生挥挥手。大家也情不自禁地回应“Hello!”“I’m fine.How are you?”老师竖起大拇指,指向自己,然后指向大家。于是开始了这节课的教学。‘'How are you?”“I’m fine.”的呼声此起彼伏。然后,老师放起了“heuo!Hello!How are you?”的乐曲。“Is it nice?Do you want to sing?”老师笑眯眯地问大家。“Yes!”孩:Pff]回应。老师看着学生们兴致这么高,也很高兴。首先,她让学生先听两遍录音,然后让孩子们一句句地学说英文歌词,又亲自一句句的耄眇昌,然后跟着节拍唱、分男女唱、小组唱??教唱歌曲的过程整整持续了21分钟。课也在歌声中结束了。加分钟的课里,有整整21分钟学生们是在学唱歌中度过的,后半节课几乎成了一堂音乐课。唱歌虽是/J哗生容易接受的形式,但在英语课堂中,任何形式的活动都应为学生获得语言能力设计,如果这些活动缺少了应有尽有的教学目标的指向,动的主题偏离了教学目标,再好的教学形式也不能收到理想的教学效果。
E. 如何在英语写作教学中体现学生的主体地位
学生是知识意义的主动建构者,而非外部刺激的被动接受者;教师应该是学生主动建构知识意义的帮助专者而属非知识的灌输者。写作在英语学习中占有十分重要的地位。在写作教学中应"以学生为中心",教师的角色由知识的传授者、灌输者转变成为学生主动建构语言的帮助者和促进者。
F. 英语写作的重要性,和教学时应注意什么。200词左右,英文版的
英语写作其实比想象中的重要得多,工作和生活中随处都需要用到这项基内本英语技能,许容多跨国公司都习惯使用电子邮件来与同事和商业伙伴通信,就如同每天都在写一篇篇英语作文,即使是学生也常常需要用英语写作各种论文和报告。因此,拥有良好的英语写作能力,写出优秀、准确的英语作文非常重要。即使你只是为了兴趣爱好在网络上写博客或在论坛发帖,拥有良好的英语写作能力和英语语法也非常重要,穿插一些有趣的英语句子和恰到好处的短语,能够吸引更多的人来浏览你的网站,参与你的话题。在EF英孚中心,学员可以参加不同内容的课堂辅导和讨论会,课堂教学和讨论的主题包括商务、科技、健身、节日、文化、艺术、环境和历史等,还会安排英语写作等技能类的课堂训练,帮助学员达到听说读写全方位的锻炼,课堂实行小组教学,每位老师一般负责三名学员,而讨论会则是以外教主持的形式进行外教坐堂的在线英语写作课程EF的在线英语写作课别具一格。当学员把写好的英语作文上传系统之后,老师会在48小时之内给予详细的批复,包括英语语法、字词的修正及英语写作评分、以及针对该英语作文的整体建议等,已经帮助许多学员提高了英语写作能力。
G. 英语作文听说教学比语法教学重要性
英语听说读写是学生交流与实际运用的基本技能,目前,许多学生在经过整个阶段的英语学习之后,运用英语仍然有限,很多学生对语言知识死记硬背,其实提高英语听、说、读、写能力是有一定方法的。英语是一种交际工具,听说读写都应在英语学习中占有举足轻重的作用。在英语教学中为了能够提高学生的听说读写基本技能,就需要对听说读写的方法及运用有实际的了解。
英语听说读写的的重要性及关系
一、提高英语听说与读写的重要性
听说读写是英语教学中的四大环节,也是英语学习后所要达到的目标。专家认为这四个方面要从课堂上慢慢的渗透,每个教学目标都不是一下子就学会的,就像小孩子走路,不可能一天就学会。听是一切英语学习的根源,没有听就没有说。他们两个是相互促进的,而不读肯定写不出好的文章。听说读写也是需要看授课的内容,对象以及时间的,当然也会有侧重点,在不同的阶段也是不同的,比如说小学,就会侧重听说读,而升入初中的学生渐渐读的少了,写的多了,也许也就是学生们眼中的难,因为写就是能反映出学生到底记没记,记了多少知识,但是不论到了哪个环节,这四个方面的要求一个都不能少。
提高学生英语阅读理解能力一般有两个途径,一个是通过课堂阅读教学,二是通过广泛的课外阅读活动。其实不然,“阅读理解”题目只是一种量化标准和测试手段。由于受到提醒因素的多重制约,同时由于我们平时接触到的阅读理解题目中,有些题目本身就不够科学和准确,存在这样那样的问题,以至对学生产生误导。学生的思路受到题目狭小范围的限制,常有“做错题”的困扰,故而阅读活动索然无味,也就失去了兴趣。这种答题的过程往往是一种被动适应题型的活动,而不是真正意义上的阅读活动。而且,一味地做阅读理解题目,学生很容易形成一种思维定势,认为阅读的目的就是答对后面的题目。犹豫阅读每篇文章都有不同的含义,不像语法有规则可循,所以学生在屡次受到打击后,对阅读理解题会有一种盲然不知所措的感觉。毫无自信地做阅读理解题目,更不可能会有兴趣去做大量的课外阅读了,提高阅读理解能力也成了空谈。
那么,提高英语听说读写的重要性,还能通过自身的实践,认真体会,积极思考和亲身体验,提高一定的语感,才能有效地提高听说和阅读理解能力。
在英语听说中,要注意遵循模仿性与创造性相结合的原则,因为语言学习需要模仿,但不仅仅使模仿,每个人说的话与别人说的话,以及同一个人在不同的时间,不同的地点,不同的场合下对不同的对象讲的话是不可能完全一样的。
二、提高英语听说读写交流的重要性
英语的听说也是交流重要之一,在英语的听说中,学生的口语表达能力也尤为重要。例如:用所学的英语进行3—5分钟的Free-talk,也是提高学生听说水平的有效方法之一。交谈的内容,形式不限,可以由教师创设提供交谈内容,也可以让学生自编。
从某种意义上说,获得英语语感是学习英语成功的标志。一个单词,一段句子往往都有重读、弱读、连读、失去爆破,根据句意还分意群、停顿等。平时在阅读中,多注意这些方面的问题,反复阅读,北宋,争取读出英语味道。其次,还可以多听外国人说话,包括他们的录音磁带,多读多听,形成语感。
可见,英语的听说技能的交流是非常重要和必要的,学好英语的方法有很多很多,英语听说水平还是会提高的。
三、在学习英语中听说读写的关系
在英语的学习中,阅读是获得信息的重要方式,是英语学习者的一个重要技能。在当今的英语考试中有许多的阅读练习题,但是基本上都必须在规定的时间内完成。遇到生词困扰,许多学生都采用了“猜”单词的意思,但是提高读的方法,可以通过一些单词或短语的暗示。浏览也是提高阅读速度的一个重要方法。一些阅读文章学生刚拿到就开始阅读,甚至不知道文章的标题与全文的意思。英语读的方法就是首先阅读所给的问题,然后带着问题读文章。在阅读的过程中,不能一个单词一个单词的读,而应该学会删除某些句子。有时甚至是和问题无关的某个段落,这样做的一个好处是节省时间。
写作能力是英语学习的四项基本技能之一。写作能力的训练有助于学生检验词语和语法结构的运用,是一种综合能力的培养。写作训练要坚持循序渐进的原则,从单词的一句一段一篇的练习顺序。通过拓展词汇量,提高英语的写作能力。句子是文章的基础,通过造句过渡到短文。
首先从整体上看,听、说、读、写是语言发展中密不可分的整体。在听说读写中会碰到多种多样的表达方式,课外阅读还有益于听和说。
听、说、读、写训练基本同步、相互结合。听与读相结合,听与写相互结合—将听力理解与写作技能结合起来,即把写作限制在特定情景中,使写作练习成为综合型交际性语言练习;说与写相结合—口语包含大量类似书面语的结构和措辞,提高学生口头表达技能写作准备;读与写相结合—写的过程实际上模仿的过程,学生在阅读过程中必须揣摩作者的写作意图、模仿作者的遣词造句和篇章结构,总之,听、说、读、写四种技能密不可分,相辅相成,需要进行大量的反复实践练习,才能提高。
因此,听说是紧密联系在一起的,不可分割的。提高写作的方法不仅在写的基础上,选择一些典型的句型作为例句进行练习,再次缩写或改写文章,能帮助学生更好地理解文章,提高学生写的技能。
网络翻译字数限制为5000字, "构的运"及其后面没有被翻译!
English is a basic skill, students' communication and practical application at present, many students in the whole stage of learning English, English is still limited, many students of language knowledge by rote, actually improve English listening, speaking, reading and writing ability is a method. English is a communication tool, listening, speaking, reading and writing should play an important role in the study of English. In English teaching, in order to improve the students' listening, speaking, reading and writing skills, it is necessary to have a practical understanding of listening, speaking, reading, writing, listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Importance and relationship of English listening, speaking, reading and writing
I. improving the importance of listening, speaking, reading and writing in English
Listening, speaking, reading and writing are the four major parts of English teaching and learning, and it is also the goal of learning English. Experts believe that these four aspects should be slowly infiltrated from the classroom, each teaching goals are not all of a sudden, it is like a child to walk, it is not possible to learn one day. Listening is the root of all English learning, without listening to it. The two of them promote each other, but not to read and write a good article. Speaking and writing also need to look at the teaching content, object and time, there are also different emphasis in different stages, such as primary school, will focus on listening and reading, while junior high school students began to read a little, write more, perhaps it is difficult for the eyes of the students. Writing is to reflect the students really can not remember, remember how much knowledge, but no matter to which links the four aspects of the requirements of one less.
There are two ways to improve students' English reading comprehension ability, one is through classroom reading teaching, and the two is through extensive reading activities. In fact, "reading comprehension" is just a kind of quantitative standard and testing method. Due to multiple constraints remind factors, and since we are exposed to the reading comprehension questions, some of the title itself is not scientific and accurate, the existence of such problems, and even mislead the students. The thinking of students by subject narrow limits, often have "done wrong" problems, so flat and uninteresting reading activities will lose interest. The answer is often a passive adaptation problem, rather than the true sense of the reading activities. Moreover, blindly reading comprehension questions, students can easily form a kind of thinking, that is the purpose of reading right behind the subject. Hesitate to read each article has different meanings, unlike the grammar rules to follow, so students are repeatedly hit, the reading comprehension will have a blind feeling at a loss. Have no confidence to do reading comprehension questions, more can't be interested in doing a lot of extracurricular reading, improve reading comprehension ability has become empty talk.
So, improve the importance of English listening, speaking, reading and writing, but also through their own practice, serious experience, positive thinking and personal experience, improve a certain sense of language, to effectively improve the listening and reading comprehension.
In English, we should pay attention to following the imitation and creativity of the principle of combining, because language learning need to imitate, but not to imitate, and then everyone else said the words, and the same person in different time, at different places, the object is not the same in different situations. Is not exactly the same.
Two, improve the importance of English listening, speaking, reading and writing
English listening and speaking is one of the important communication, in English listening and speaking, students' oral expression ability is also very important. For example: using the English for 5 - 3 minutes of Free-talk, is also one of the effective ways to improve students' listening and speaking. The content of the conversation, the form is not limited, can be created by the teacher to provide conversation content, can also let the students.
In a sense, it is a sign of success to learn English. A word, a sentence often stressed, weak, linking, loss of blasting, according to the meaning of the sentence is divided into meaning group and halt. Usually in reading, pay more attention to these aspects of the problem, repeated reading, the Northern Song Dynasty, to read out the taste of english. Secondly, you can also listen to foreigners to speak, including their tape, read and listen more, to form a sense of language.
Visible, English listening and speaking skills of communication is very important and necessary, to learn English is a lot of ways, the English listening and speaking level or will improve.
Three, in learning English, listening, speaking, reading and writing
In the study of English, reading is an important way to get information, and it is an important skill for English learners. There are lots of reading exercises in the English test today, but they must be completed in the specified time. Encountered new words, many students have adopted the "guess" the meaning of the word, but to improve the reading method, you can by some words or phrases. Browsing is also an important way to improve the reading speed. Some students just get started to read the article, and even do not know the title of the article and the full text of the meaning. The way to read English is to read the questions first and then read the articles. In the process of reading, can not be a word a word reading, and should learn to delete some sentences. Sometimes even a paragraph that has nothing to do with the problem is to save time.
Writing ability is one of the four basic skills in English learning. The training of writing ability will help students to test the words and grammar.
双语对照
H. 英语写作在英语学习中的重要性
别急 会把英语写作能力提高的
谈谈如何提高英语写作能力
关键词:英语写作能力 原则 方法
引言:英语写作能力是英语听、说、读、写四种基本能力之一,英语写作能有效地促进语言知识的内化。Swain(1985)提出“可理解输出”假设,认为包括写在内的语言产生性运用有助于学习者检验目的语句法结构和词语的使用,促进语言运用的自动化,有效地达到了语言习得的目的。通过写作,英语知识不断得到巩固并内在化,有利于英语技能的全面发展。但是,英语写作又是广大英语学习者最感头痛的问题之一,且容易被教师忽视,笔者以为如何提高英语写作能力值得我们认真研究。本文就此谈谈初浅的看法。
一、提高英语写作能力的原则
(一)渐进性原则。要坚持“句—段—篇”的训练程序,由易到难,循序渐进。在英语写作的初始阶段,要始终注意培养学生良好的写作习惯,狠抓基本功训练。在学生掌握了基本句型并能写出简单句子后,再要求学生根据一些体例写出小段的文章。在段落写作中要引导学生分析段落的结构、段落的中心句、句与句之间的逻辑关系、写作手法等,这样有利于下一步一篇文章的写作。在文章写作中要教会学生如何构思文章、如何运用正确的写作技巧等。
(二)多样性原则。要坚持训练形式的多样化及写作文体的多样性。从形式上而言,可以用回答提问的口头作文,也可以用续写故事;可以改写课文,也可以仿写课文;可以写提纲训练谋篇布局,也可以写拓展段训练发散思维……。从文体上而言,可以写说明文、议论文、记叙文,也可以写书信、便条、通知等实用文体。
(三)结合性原则。要坚持听说读训练和写训练相结合。根据语言习得理论,学习者在学习时常先通过听和读吸取语言知识,从而了解别人的思想,再通过说和写来表达自己的思想,让别人了解自己。大量的听说训练能促进读写能力的提高。因此,写与听说读紧密结合,进行多元化的能力训练,可使学生的各项能力互相影响、互相渗透、互相促进。
(四)控制性原则。要坚持写作前的指导,控制学生的汉语语言思维,发展英语语言思维。语言学习在很大程度上主要是模仿,而非随心所欲地自由表达。教师要加强写作前的指导,可给出范文让学生模仿,以熟悉其语篇结构。同时要控制其汉语语言思维,尽可能让学生习惯英语语言思维,以便于学生学习和掌握地道、正确的英语。
(五)持久性原则。要坚持长期、正确的写作训练。英语写作能力的提高并非一朝一夕之事,而是一个长期的、艰巨的、渐进的过程。这就要求教师、学生都要有充分的思想准备,要有坚韧不拔的意志和必胜的信心。
二、提高英语写作能力的方法。
(一)通过积累词汇量,提高英语写作能力。犹如土木砖石是建筑的材料一样,词汇是说话写作的必需材料,也是制约写作能力提高的瓶颈。可以想象,如果要写一个句子,10个单词有8个单词拼写错误或拼写不出,有2
个单词用法不当,又怎么能清楚地表达自己的思想呢?因此,在平时的教学中要强调学生记忆单词,记住单词的拼读、用法、意思等。记忆单词的方法有很多,各人有各人的记忆方法和习惯,可因人而异。教师可通过要求学生朗读单词、听写单词、默写单词、遣词造句、词汇竞赛等多种方法促进学生记单词。记忆单词是一个长期的反复的过程,要长期地坚持下去,才能不断积累大量的词汇,为英语写作打下坚实的基础。
(二)通过扩大阅读量,提高英语写作能力。古人云“熟读唐诗三百首,不会作诗也会吟”,这是汉语的一种学习方法,同样可借鉴于英语写作。多阅读是学生增加接触英语语言材料、接受信息、活跃思维、增长智力的一种途径,同时也是培养学生英语思维能力、提高理解力、增强语感、巩固和扩大词汇量的一种好方法,有利于促进英语写作能力的提高。在阅读训练中,教师要注意以下问题:一是指导阅读方法,分析文章结构、中心思想、段落中心句、写作方法等,帮助学生掌握各类文章的结构及写作方法。二要精读与泛读相结合,通过推敲优秀的文章来学会写作方法和选词用词;通过大量的泛读来吸取信息量,扩大词汇量。三要扩大阅读量。提供阅读的材料涉及面要广,才能不断扩大学生的知识面,使学生适应各种题材的写作。
(三)通过提高听说能力,提高英语写作能力。英语听说读写四种能力是相互影响、相互促进的,提高听说能力必定会促进写作能力的提高。要提高听说能力关键在于创设一个良好的英语环境。教师要尽可能地用英语授课,多开展专门的听说训练,同时开展丰富多彩的课外英语活动,让学生沉浸在英语海洋中去领略、去体会、去使用英语,久而久之,学生自然能使用正确的、地道的英语进行交谈与写作。
(四)通过重视写作过程,提高英语写作能力。长期以来,英语写作成果教学法(THE PRODUCT
APPROACH)在我国居于主导地位,教师根据写作的终成品来判断写作的成败,重视写作的技术性细节(如格式、拼写、语法等),忽视写作过程的指导。根据D.Rumechart和J.McClelland提出的连通论(Connectionism)理论,写作包括写前阶段、具体写作、文章修改三个基本过程,这三个过程并非是线性排列,而是循环往复,穿插进行的。教师只有重视加强对写作三个过程的指导,才能更好地提高英语写作能力。在写作前阶段,教师重在指导学生如何挖掘题材,训练发散性思维,以及如何选择材料、谋篇布局等。在具体写作中,教师重在指导学生如何紧扣主题、运用正确的写作方法等。在文章修改中,教师重在指导学生如何修改语法及用词的错误。
(五)通过多写英语摘要,提高英语写作能力。英语摘要是把一篇文章的要点摘录出来,用自己的语言使之独立成一篇短文,这不是简单的摘录,而是忠于原文意思的再创作。写英语摘要有利于学生了解原文的文化背景、理解原文的中心意思、弄清原文的篇章结构,从而提高学生的逻辑思维能力和谋篇布局能力。
(六)通过发展英语语言思维能力,提高英语写作能力。英语写作是运用已掌握的内在化语言知识和表达方法,通过思维进行外在化输出的创作,因此英语语言思维能力在英语写作中作用非凡。对于我国学生而言,在英语写作中易受汉语语言思维的影响,难以直接用英语语言进行思维,不利于英语写作能力的提高,因此发展其英语语言思维能力尤为重要。教师要注意对学生的英语语言思维进行多方位、多角度的训练:要采取各种方法训练学生英语语言思维的广阔性、深刻性、发散性和创造性;要教会学生用英语思考问题、回答问题;要从训练形象思维开始,逐步过渡到抽象思维训练;在课文讲解中要尽可能不用汉语翻译而用英语解释,消除汉语思维的影响;要努力创设良好的英语环境,在英语交际中发展英语思维能力。
写好英语段落的三个标准
首先,一个段落必须有一个中心即主题思想,该中心由主题句特别是其中的题旨来表达。整个段落必须紧扣这个主题(stick or hold to the topic),这就是段落的统一性(unity)。其次,一个段落必须有若干推展句,使主题思想得到充分展开,从而给读者一个完整的感觉,这就是完整性(completeness or adequateness)。再者,一个段落不是杂乱无章的,而是有机的组合,句子的排列顺序必须合乎逻辑,从一个句子到另一个句子的过渡必须流畅(smooth),这就是连贯性(coherence)。下面我们就对这三个标准分别加以说明。
1、统一性
一个段落内的各个句子必须从属于一个中心,任何游离于中心思想之外的句子都是不可取的。请看下例:
Joe and I decided to take the long trip we'd always wanted across the country. We were like young kids buying our camper and stocking it with all the necessities of life. Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie. We started out in early spring from Minneapolis and headed west across the northern part of the country. We both enjoyed those people we met at the trailer park. Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner. To our surprise, we found that we liked the warm southern regions very much, and so we decided to stay here in New Mexico.
本段的主题句是段首句,controlling idea(中心思想)是take the long trip across the country.文中出现两个irrelevant sentences,一个是Bella bakes the best rhubarb pie,这一段是讲的是Joe and I ,中间出现一个Bella是不合适的。还有,Joe received a watch at his retirement dinner这一句更是与主题句不相关。考生在四级统考的作文卷上常常因为造出irrelevant sentences(不相关语句)而丢分,值得引起注意。再看一个例子:
My name is Roseanna, and I like to keep physically fit. I used to weigh two hundred pounds, but I joined the YMCA for an exercise class and diet program. In one year I lost eighty pounds. I feel much better and never want to have that much weight on my five-feet frame again. I bought two new suitcases last week. Everyday I practice jogging three miles, swimming fifteen laps, lifting twenty-pound weights and playing tennis for one hour. My mother was a premature baby.
本段的controlling idea 是like to deep physically fit,但段中有两个irrelevant sentences,一个是I bought two new suitcases last week,另一个是My mother was a premature baby.
从上面两个例子可以看出,native speakers同样会造出来irrelevant sentences.卷面上如果这种句子多了,造成偏题或离题,那问题就更严重了。
2、完整性
正象我们前面说得那样,一个段落的主题思想靠推展句来实现,如果只有主题句而没有推展句来进一步交待和充实,就不能构成一个完整的段落。同样,虽然有推展句,但主题思想没有得到相对圆满的交待,给读者一种意犹未尽的感觉。这样的段落也不能完成其交际功能。例如:
Physical work can be a useful form of therapy for a mind in turmoil. Work concentrates your thoughts on a concrete task. Besides, it is more useful to work —— you proce something rather than more anxiety or depression.
本段的主题句是段首句。本段的两个推展句均不能回答主题句中提出的问题。什么是“a mind in turmoil”(心境不平静)Physical work又如何能改变这种情况?为什么它能起therapy的作用?读者得不到明确的答案。由于四级统考的作文部分只要求写一篇100~120个词的三段式短文,每一段只有大约40个词左右,因此,要达到完整就必须尽可能地简明。例如:
It is not always true that a good picture is worth a thousand words. Often writing is much clearer than a picture. It is sometimes difficult to figure out what a picture means, but a careful writer can almost always explain it.
段首句所表达的主题思想是一种看法,必须有具体事例加以验证。上述两个推展句只是在文字上对主题作些解释,整个段落内容空洞,简而不明。如果用一两个具体的例子的话,就可以把主题解释清楚了。比如下段:
It is not always true that a picture is worth a thousand words. Sometimes, pictures are pretty useless things. If you can't swim and fall in the river and start gulping water, will you be better off to hold up a picture of yourself drowning, or start screaming “Help”?
3、连贯性(coherence)
连贯性包括意连和形连两个方面,前者指的是内在的逻辑性,后者指的是使用转换词语。当然这两者常常是不可分割的。只有形连而没有意连,句子之间就没有内在的有机的联系;反之,只有意连而没有形连,有时行文就不够流畅。
1)、意连
段落中句子的排列应遵循一定的次序,不能想到什么就写什么。如果在下笔之前没有构思,边写边想,写写停停,那就写不出一气呵成的好文章来。下面介绍几种常见的排列方式。
A.按时间先后排列(chronological arrangement)
We had a number of close calls that day. When we rose, it was obviously late and we had to hurry so as not to miss breakfast; we knew the dining room staff was strict about closing at nine o'clock. Then, when we had been driving in the desert for nearly two hours —— it must have been close to noon —— the heat nearly hid us in; the radiator boiled over and we had to use most of our drinking water to cool it down. By the time we reached the mountain, it was our o'clock and we were exhausted. Here, judgement ran out of us and we started the tough climb to the summit, not realizing that darkness came suddenly in the desert. Sure enough, by six we were struggling and Andrew very nearly went down a steep cliff, dragging Mohammed and me along with him. By nine, when the wind howled across the flat ledge of the summit, we knew as we shivered together for warmth that it had not been our lucky day.
本段从“rose”(起床)写起,然后是吃早餐(“not to miss breakfast”, “closing at nine o'clock”),然后是“close to noon”,一直写到这一天结束(“By nine——”)。
B. 按位置远近排列(spatial arrangement)。例如:
From a distance, it looked like a skinny tube, but as we got closer, we could see it flesh out before our eyes. It was tubular, all right, but fatter than we could see from far away. Furthermore, we were also astonished to notice that the building was really in two parts: a pagoda sitting on top of a tubular one-story structure. Standing ten feet away, we could marvel at how much of the pagoda was made up of glass windows. Almost everything under the wonderful Chinese roof was made of glass, unlike the tube that it was sitting on, which only had four. Inside, the tube was gloomy, because of the lack of light. Then a steep, narrow staircase took us up inside the pagoda and the light changed dramatically. All those windows let in a flood of sunshine and we could see out for miles across the flat land.
本段的写法是由远及近,从远处(“from a distance”)写起,然后“get closer”,再到(“ten feet away”),最后是“inside the pagoda”……当然,按位置远近来写不等于都是由远及近。根据需要,也可以由近及远,由表及里等等。
C. 按逻辑关系排列(logical arrangement)
a. 按重要性顺序排列(arrangement in order of importance)
If you work as a soda jerker, you will, of course, not need much skill in expressing yourself to be effective. If you work on a machine, your ability to express yourself will be of little importance. But as soon as you move one step up from the bottom, your effectiveness depends on your ability to reach others through the spoken or the written word. And the further away your job is from manual work, the larger the organization of which you are an employee, the more important it will be that you know how to convey your thoughts in writing or speaking. In the very large business organization, whether it is the government, the large corporation, or the Army, this ability to express oneself is perhaps the most important of all the skills a man can possess.
这一段谈的是表达能力,它的重要性与职业,身份有关,从“not need much skill”或“of little importance”到“more important”,最后是“most important”。
b.由一般到特殊排列(general-to-specific arrangement)
If a reader is lost, it is generally because the writer has not been careful enough to keep him on the path. This carelessness can take any number of forms. Perhaps a sentence is so excessively cluttered that the reader, hacking his way through the verbiage, simply doesn't know what it means. Perhaps a sentence has been so shoddily constructed that the reader could read it in any of several ways. Perhaps the writer has switched tenses, or has switched pronouns in mid-sentence, so the reader loses track of when the action took place or who is talking. Perhaps sentence B is not logical sequel to sentence A —— the writer, in whose head the connection is clear, has not bothered to provide the missing link. Perhaps the writer has used an important word incorrectly by not taking the trouble to look it up. He may think that “sanguine” and “sanguinary” mean the same thing, but the difference is a bloody big one. The reader can only infer what the writer is trying to imply.
这一段谈的是a writer's carelessness,先给出一个general statement作为主题句,然后通过5个 ”perhaps”加以例证。
c. 由特殊到一般排列(specific-to-general arrangement)
I do not understand why people confuse my Siamese cat, Prissy, with the one I had several years ago, Henry. The two cats are only alike in breed. Prissy, a quiet, feminine feline, loves me dearly but not possessively. She likes to keep her distance from people, exert her independence and is never so rude as to beg, lick, or sniff unceremoniously. Her usual posture is sitting upright, eyes closed, perfectly still. Prissy is a very proper cat. Henry, on the other hand, loved me dearly but possessively. He was my shadow from morning till night. He expected me to constantly entertain him. Henry never cared who saw him do anything, whether it was decorous or not, and he usually offended my friends in some way. The cat made himself quite comfortable, on the top of the television, across stranger's feet or laps, in beds, drawers, sacks, closets, or nooks. The difference between them is imperceptible to strangers.
本段的主题句是段首句,它仅提出一个问题:为什么两只猫会被搞混。然后对两者进行比较,末句才下结论。
2)、形连
行文的逻辑性常常要靠适当的转换词语及其他手段来实现。请读下面这一段文字并找出文中用以承上启下的词语:
Walter's goal in life was to become a successful surgeon. First, though, he had to get through high school, so he concentrated all his efforts on his studies —— in particular, biology, chemistry, and math. Because he worked constantly on these subjects, Walter became proficient in them; however, Walter forgot that he needed to master other subjects besides those he had chosen. As a result, ring his junior year of high school, Walter failed both English and Latin. Consequently, he had to repeat these subjects and he was almost unable to graate on schele. Finally, on June 6, Walter achieved the first step toward realizing his goal.
本文中起承上启下的词语有两种,一种是转换词语(transitional words or phrases),另一种是起转换作用的其他连接手段(linking devices)。前者依次有:first, though, so, in particular, and, because, however, besides, as a result, both…and, consequently, and, finally.后者依次是:he, he, his, his, he, these, them, he, those, his, he, these, his. 本段中共有词汇105个,所使用的转换词语及其他连接用语共26个词,约占该段总词汇量的四分之一。由此可见,掌握好transitions不仅对行文的流(smoothness)有益,而且对于学生在半个小时内写足四级短文所要求的120个词也是不无好处的。
一个段落里如果没有transitions也就很难有coherence了。我们看下面一个例子:Speaking and writing are different in many ways. Speech depends on sounds. Writing uses written symbols. Speech developed about 500 000 years ago. Written language is a recent development. It was invented only about six thousand years ago. Speech is usually informal. The word choice of writing is often relatively formal. Pronunciation and accent often tell where the speaker is from. Pronunciation and accent are ignored in writing. A standard diction and spelling system prevails in the written language of most countries. Speech relies on gesture, loudness, and rise and fall of the voice. Writing lacks gesture, loudness and the rise and fall of the voice. Careful speakers and writers are aware of the differences.
本段中除了第6句开头出现一个起过渡作用的”it”之外,没有使用其他的过渡词语。这样,文中出现许多重复的词语,全段读起来也显得生硬而不自然。如果加上必要的过渡词语来修饰的话,这一段就成了下面一个流畅连贯的段落:
Speaking and writing are different in many ways. Speech depends on sounds; writing, on the other hand, uses written symbols. Speech was developed about 500 000 years ago, but written language is a recent development, invented only about six thousand years ago. Speech is usually informal, while the word choice of writing, by contrast, is often relatively formal. Although pronunciation and accent often tell where the speaker is from, they are ignored in wiring because a standard diction and spelling system prevails in most countries. Speech relies on gesture, loudness, and the rise and fall of the voice, but writing lacks these features. Careful speakers and writers are aware of the differences.
4、有损连贯性的几种情况:
考生在写作中经常出现下面几种错误:
1、不必要的改变时态,比如:
In the movie, Robert Redford was a spy. He goes to his office where he found everybody dead. Other spies wanted to kill him, so he takes refuge with Julie Christie. At her house, he had waited for the heat to die down, but they come after him anyway.
2、不必要的改变单复数,比如:
Everybody looks for satisfaction in his life. They want to be happy. But if he seeks only pleasure in the short run, the person will soon run out of pleasure and life will catch up to him. They need to pursue the deeper pleasure of satisfaction in work and in relationships.
3、不必要的改变人称,比如:
Now more than ever, parents need to be in touch with their children's activities because modern life has the tendency to cause cleavages in the family. You need to arrange family like it so that family members will do things together and know one another. You need to give up isolated pleasures of your own and realize that parents have a set of obligations to sponsor togetherness and therefore sponsor knowledge.
因此写作中,一定要注意时态,人称以及数的变化是否正确,要注意保持一致。