三、段落的发展方法
段落的发展(Paragraph Development)是根据主题句所提供的中心思想来阐明问题的某一方面。一个好的段落应该主题单一, 内容完整, 意思连贯, 长度适中。段落扩展的方法很多, 对于硕士研究生入学考试的考生来说, 比较常用的有: 列举法, 举例法, 描写与叙述法, 因果法, 比较和对比法, 归类法和定义法七种。下面我们分别加以论述。
(1) 列举法(Listing)。列举法是一种最为常见的段落发展方法, 用这种方法发展段落, 首先要写出主题句, 然后列举一系列的论据对主题句所陈述的主题内容进行陈述和解释, 列举的顺序可以按照各点内容的相对重要性, 时间的先后或地理位置的远近等关系来进行。例如:
- Advertisement can be beneficial to people. First, it is informative and can help people buy and sell goods. Second, it can widen people's knowledge, and make people more experienced. Finally, people can enjoy themselves in watching those funny and interesting advertisement programs.
- There are mainly two opinions on the relationship between man and machines. Some people believe that it will be possible for automatic machines, especially electronic computers, to replace man completely in the future. Others, however, argue that man is the decisive factor in production and the potential of man's intelligence is practically unlimited.
列举常用的表达方法有: first, second, in the first place, first of all, to begin with, in the second place, next, also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more, beyond that, for one thing, for another, finally.
(2) 举例法(Exemplification)。为了阐明或支持一个观点, 举例说明是一个常用而且有力的工具。在采用举例法发展段落时, 作者往往在主题句中开门见山地摆出自己的观点, 然后举出具体的事例来对其进行说明。所举的例子一般可按照时间顺序或重要性等来进行安排。关键在于各个实例都要于主题密切相关, 具有典型性和说服力, 或者能够不断地深入说明, 或反映主题各个侧面。 例如:
- Pollution is becoming more and more seriously all over the world. For example, the poisonous gas sent off by factories and automobiles has made the air unhealthy for people to breathe. For another example, waste water keeps pouring into rivers and lakes; as a result, many water lives are dying out. Furthermore, everywhere we go today, we can find rubbish carelessly disposed. Pollution is, in fact, threatening our existence.
- In the past, a good student refers to one who was only good at studies. For example, in the school, what the school master cared about was how well the student did in his school subjects. It did not matter whether a student had good health or not as long as he got the top marks. At home, for another example, before leaving for school, the parents would again and again tell their children to study hard and try to get good grades. As a result, many students showed little interest in anything else.
举例法常用的表达方法有: for example, for instance, as an example, as a case in point, as an illustration, such as, namely, that is, like, say.
(3) 描写与叙述法(Description and Narration)。 段落还可以用描述与叙述的方法来发展。描写是指作者对某人、某物或事件的感觉和印象, 而叙述则指作者对某个故事和事件的讲述。描述和叙述一般按照时间和空间的次序, 而这种次序关系在很大程度上体现在它们所特有的过渡连接词上。用这种方法发展段落, 作者能够清楚而连贯地交代事物的本末, 从而使读者可以清晰完整地理解文章的含义。例如，96年考题Good Health的第三段My own practice 可用这种方法。我们看下边的例题。
When I First Came to the Campus
I still remember the day when I first came to the campus. I was then 17, longing for the new life as a university student.
That morning when the bus carried me to the gate of the university, I felt my heart beating excitedly and almost out of mouth. After the registration, we were led by an instructor to the dorm where, for the first time, we were going to live without parents but roommates. I was so clumsy that I didn't know how to make the bed and fix the net. In the afternoon, I took a walk around the campus together with my roommates. As we were talking and laughing, a voice of a senior student came into our ears, 揙h, look at these freshmen!?It was our middle-school-students' looking that gave us away.
In the evening, we sat together, talking about the past and the future. We were so excited that no one wanted to sleep.
(4) 因果法(Cause and Effect)。在人类的思维活动中, 人们常常会根据事物的原因推断其结果, 或者根据某一结果分析其原因。写作中的因果法正是这种思维方式在写作过程中的具体体现。所谓因果法, 就是通过分析事物发生的原因,自然地说明由此而产生的各种结果, 或者通过分析某一结果, 推断导致这一结果的原因。例如:
Nowadays there is often a misunderstanding between parent and child. The most obvious reason for this lack of communication is that they grew up at different times and therefore have different likes and dislikes for the things around them. Also the parent is often too busy to listen patiently to the explanation of the child when there is a misunderstanding. Both of them take it for granted that there is a generation gap.
原因与结果常用的表达方法有: because, because of, as, since, for, owing to, due to, on account of, on the ground of, as a result of, thus, so, consequently, hence, therefore, accordingly, as a result, for this reason, as a consequence, on that account, it follows that 等
(5) 对比和比较法(Comparison and Contrast)。 对比比较法用于讨论两个或更多的人或事, 阐明它们之间的异同, 也是发展段落的一种常用的方法。例如:
The younger generation is essentially different from the older generation. The world of older people has vanished, and they do not understand all of the problems of the modern world. On the other hand, the younger people have grown up with these problems, and they are deeply concerned about them. The older generation still controls the power in business organizations, government, and education. The young people want to make changes in these areas to fit the needs of modern society. In order to reconcile their differences, both generations must realize that the world has changed, and that new responses are necessary for many of the problems of society.
对比比较常用的表达方法有: similarly, likewise, in the same way, equally important, like, both, the same as, in common, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, unlike, in contrast, whereas, rather than, conversely, instead, by contrast等。
(6) 分类法(Classification)。 分类法就是按照一定的标准对事物进行归类, 是在依据事物的性质、形状、原因、功能等特征分门别类的基础上, 对事物逐一进行描述的一种写作手法。这种方法的特点是: 段落布局合理, 类别分明, 井然有序, 互相映衬。在使用分类法时, 我们应特别注意所分范畴的合理性。例如:
There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard and best-sellers unread, untouched. This deluded individual owns woodpile and ink, not books. The second has a great many books 梐 few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean as the day they were bought. This person would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect for their physical appearance. The third has a few books or many ?every one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. This man owns books.
